Hypersensitivity Reactions, Delayed

Background

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are inflammatory reactions initiated by mononuclear leukocytes. The term delayed is used to differentiate a secondary cellular response, which appears 48-72 hours after antigen exposure, from an immediate hypersensitivity response, which generally appears within 12 minutes of an antigen challenge. These reactions are mediated by T cells and monocytes/macrophages rather than by antibodies. They are also termed type IV hypersensitivity reactions.

Delayed hypersensitivity is a major mechanism of defense against various intracellular pathogens, including mycobacteria, fungi, and certain parasites, and it occurs in transplant rejection and tumor immunity. The central role of CD4⁺ T cells in delayed hypersensitivity manifests in patients with AIDS. Because of the loss of CD4⁺ cells, the host response against intracellular pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis is markedly impaired. The bacteria are engulfed by macrophages but are not killed.

If T-cell function is abnormal, the patient presents with opportunistic infections, including infection with mycobacteria, fungi, parasites, and, often, mucocutaneous candidiasis. Undesirable consequences of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions include illness such as contact dermatitis and allograft rejection. Examples of DTH reactions are contact dermatitis (eg, poison ivy rash), tuberculin skin test reactions, granulomatous inflammation (eg, sarcoidosis, Crohn disease), allograft rejection, graft versus host disease, and autoimmune hypersensitivity reactions. Of note, the Rhus genus of plants, which includes poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac, all cause identical rashes.

Pathophysiology

The cellular events that result in delayed hypersensitivity reactions primarily involve T cells and macrophages. First, local immune and inflammatory responses at the site of foreign antigen up-regulate endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression, promoting the accumulation of leukocytes at the tissue site. The antigen is engulfed by macrophages and monocytes and is presented to a T cell that has a specific receptor for that antigen. Macrophages secrete interleukin (IL)–1, IL-2, IL-6, and other lymphokines. Cytotoxic T cells can also be activated. The recruited macrophages can form giant cells. The characteristic histologic appearance of the macrophage–T-cell infiltrate is a granuloma. This type of infiltrate in the tissue is called granulomatous inflammation.

Several variants of DTH exist, and their precise pathophysiologic mechanisms are slightly different. For example, in contact hypersensitivity reactions, the epidermis is involved; in pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), lung tissue is involved.

Frequency

International

DTH reactions are extremely common.

Mortality/Morbidity

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are normal physiological events. Anything that alters these normal events can lead to multiple opportunistic infections. DTH reactions may include, but are not limited to, contact dermatitis (eg, poison ivy rash), tuberculin skin test reactions, granulomatous inflammation (eg, sarcoidosis, Crohn disease), allograft rejection, graft versus host disease, and autoimmune hypersensitivity reactions. Morbidity and mortality vary (eg, ranging from a rash to chronic debilitating diseases) based on the active disease present.

Race

No racial predilection is recognized.

Sex

No sexual predilection is recognized.

Age

Persons of any age can be affected.

Treatment

Medical Care

Medical treatment is specific for the disease entity. Some common examples follow.

• Contact dermatitis: The treatment of contact dermatitis varies depending on the severity of the disease. The best advice is to avoid the offending antigen. Pharmaceutical treatment varies, including over-the-counter corticosteroid preparations, prescription corticosteroid preparations, injectable corticosteroids, oral corticosteroids, and Burow solution.

• Tuberculin hypersensitivity skin reactions: Treatment is rarely needed because this response is usually short-lived and self-limited. Topical corticosteroid preparations can be applied as needed. On rare occasions, the reaction to a delayed hypersensitivity skin test may be extreme and result in axillary lymphadenopathy and fever. Such reactions are self-limited and may be treated with an antipyretic medication such as aspirin or ibuprofen.

• Granulomatous diseases: Treatment varies greatly depending on the specific disease. Refer to the appropriate eMedicine article for a full discussion .

Consultations

Whether or not to consult a specialist and which specialist to consult also depend on the specific disease and its severity.

• Contact dermatitis: Most cases of contact dermatitis can be managed in an outpatient setting by a primary care physician. However, for severe cases, immediate consultation with a physician board-certified in allergy and immunology and/or dermatology is warranted.

• Tuberculin hypersensitivity skin reactions: If the Mantoux reaction is positive, patients may require consultation with a pulmonologist or an infectious disease specialist. A primary care physician trained in assessing the significance of a positive Mantoux reaction can also effectively treat these patients.

• Granulomatous diseases: Depending on the specific disease entity, an infectious disease specialist (eg, TB, fungal disease, schistosomiasis), pulmonologist (eg, TB, sarcoidosis), gastroenterologist (eg, granulomatous hepatitis, Crohn disease), and/or an allergist/clinical immunologist may need to be consulted.

Activity

As tolerated

Medication

Medical treatment differs greatly depending on the specific disease entity. Only a few medications are discussed. In addition to drugs mentioned below, a drug that may augment cell-mediated immunity is cimetidine, which is an H2 receptor blocker that acts as a reverse antagonist and may augment cell-mediated immunity.

Drug Category: Corticosteroids

Have anti-inflammatory properties and cause profound and varied metabolic effects. Modify the body's immune response to diverse stimuli.

Drug Name	Triamcinolone (Aristocort)
Description	Helps treat inflammatory dermatosis responsive to steroids. Decreases inflammation by suppressing migration of PMN leukocytes and reversing capillary permeability.
Adult Dose	Topical: Apply a thin film bid/tid until a favorable response is obtained; not for use >3 consecutive wk

Alternatively, 40-80 mg IM once

Strength of dose should be individualized for patient
Pediatric Dose	Administer as in adults; not for use >2 consecutive wk
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity; fungal, viral, or bacterial skin infections
Interactions	None reported
Pregnancy	C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established.

Precautions	Do not use in patients with decreased skin circulation; avoid using on face, neck, axillae, and groin; prolonged use, applications over large areas, and use of potent steroids and occlusive dressings may cause systemic absorption; systemic absorption may cause Cushing syndrome, reversible HPA axis suppression, hyperglycemia, and glycosuria

Drug Name	Mometasone (Elocon)
Description	May depress formation, release, and activity of endogenous chemical mediators of inflammation.
Adult Dose	Apply sparingly to affected areas bid; do not use occlusive dressing; usually, do not use >2 consecutive wk
Pediatric Dose	Not recommended but frequently used for short periods
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity; fungal, viral, or tubercular skin lesions; herpes simplex or zoster infections
Interactions	None reported
Pregnancy	C - Safety for use during pregnancy has not been established.

Precautions	If used over large or denuded areas of body, for prolonged periods, with occlusive dressings, or in infants, adverse systemic effects may result

Drug Name	Prednisone (Deltasone, Orasone, Meticorten, Sterapred)
Description	May decrease inflammation by reversing increased capillary permeability and suppressing PMN activity.
Adult Dose	5-60 mg/d PO qd or divided bid/qid; taper over 2 wk as symptoms resolve
Pediatric Dose	4-5 mg/m2/d PO; alternatively, 0.05-2 mg/kg PO divided bid/qid; taper over 2 wk as symptoms resolve
Contraindications	Documented hypersensitivity; viral infection; peptic ulcer disease; hepatic dysfunction; connective tissue infections; fungal or tubercular skin infections; GI disease
Interactions	Coadministration with estrogens may decrease clearance; concurrent use with digoxin may cause digitalis toxicity secondary to hypokalemia; phenobarbital, phenytoin, and rifampin may increase metabolism of glucocorticoids (consider increasing maintenance dose); monitor for hypokalemia with coadministration of diuretics
Pregnancy	B - Usually safe but benefits must outweigh the risks.

Precautions	Abrupt discontinuation of glucocorticoids may cause adrenal crisis; hyperglycemia, edema, osteonecrosis, myopathy, peptic ulcer disease, hypokalemia, osteoporosis, euphoria, psychosis, myasthenia gravis, growth suppression, and infections may occur